Final Environmental Assessment and FONSI for the Coral Reef Conservation Grant Program
3. AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT
A primary objective of the CRCGP is to promote sound science to improve the understanding of coral reef ecosystems and to mitigate threats responsible for the decline of coral reefs. The jurisdiction of the program includes all areas with shallow water coral reef ecosystems within the insular U.S., U.S. territories, Freely Associated States, and other countries, and includes coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds and other associated habitats, as well as the benthic invertebrates, algae and fishes that utilize these habitats. The United States has jurisdiction over an estimated 7,607 square miles of coral reefs, not including the Freely Associated States. Thus, the potentially affected environment associated with the proposed action is quite substantial, and includes all coastal habitats in state and territorial waters, plus offshore habitats within the U.S. Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), coastal habitats in tropical and subtropical countries outside of the U.S., as well as coastal areas that influence or affect coral reef ecosystems.
The following section describes the physical, biological and social environments of coral reef ecosystems. Each section provides baseline information on the habitat types potentially affected by the proposed action and alternatives. The following resources also are generally described: EFH, endangered species, cultural and historic resources, and socioeconomics.
3.1.1 Corals, Coral Reefs, Coral Reef Ecosystems
Coral reefs consist of consolidated limestone or unconsolidated rubble constructed primarily from the skeletal remains of invertebrates and algae. Living corals and other benthic organisms form a thin veneer that overlies a limestone framework deposited over thousands of years by their ancestors, and solidified by the combined processes of cementing coralline algae, mechanical action of waves, bioerosion from boring sponges and other organisms, and the chemical action of rainwater. Reef building scleractinian corals are the dominant organisms responsible for most of the framework growth, followed by coralline algae on wave exposed reef slopes, and green algae (e.g., Halimeda) in back reef and lagoonal depositional zones. Other important organisms contributing sediments to reef structure include mollusks, foraminiferans, and echinoderms.
Coral as defined by the Coral Reef Conservation Act that guides the CRCGP refers to the species of the phylum Cnidaria, including-
- All species of the orders Antipatharia (black corals), Scleractinia (stony corals), Gorgonacea (horny corals), Stolonifera (organpipe corals and others), Alcyanacea (soft corals), and Coenothecalia (blue coral), of the class Anthozoa; and
- All species of the order Hydrocorallina (fire corals and hydrocorals) of the class Hydrozoa.
The Cnidaria comprise over 6,000 known species providing
diversity, awe, and beauty known the world over. The soft and
stony corals are often single organisms but also form colonies
capable of producing massive coral reefs (reefs or shoals composed
primarily of corals) that provide numerous benefits. A coral reef
ecosystem is defined as "coral and other species of reef
organisms (including reef plants) associated with coral reefs,
and the nonliving environmental factors that directly affect coral
reefs, that together function as an ecological unit in nature."
The complexity of such a system that is diverse, subject to adverse
perturbations when components of the system are disturbed, and
subject to potential rebound if perturbations are minimized becomes
clear when it is examined.
Coral reefs are generally found between 30ºN latitude and
30ºS latitude across the globe in what has sometimes been
referred to as the "fragile ring of life" (see Figure
1). While deep or cold water corals exist, the focus of the CRCGP
has been on the coral reefs and associated life forms found in
the "fragile ring."
Coral reefs subject to the CRCGP are found along the Western Atlantic and the continental shelf of the northern Gulf of Mexico, and around Caribbean and Pacific Islands. Western Atlantic and Caribbean shallow-water coral reefs are off the State of Florida, the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, the Territory of the U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Navassa Island National Wildlife Refuge. Deeper reefs in the Northern Gulf of Mexico and the Western Atlantic are also covered. Shallow-water reefs of the U.S. Pacific islands are extensive and include the Main and Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, the Territories of American Samoa and Guam, CNMI, and seven remote, unincorporated Pacific island areas (Baker, Howland, Jarvis, Johnston, Kingman, Palmyra, and Wake). Also included are the Indo-Pacific reefs around the Freely Associated States (Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, and the Republic of the Marshall Islands) (Turgeon, et. al., 2002).
3.1.2 Mangroves and Seagrass Beds
Of tremendous importance to the function of coral reefs is their proximity to other associated communities such as seagrass beds and mangroves. The term mangrove is used to refer to a group of trees and shrubs that inhabit the coastal intertidal zone in the tropics and subtropics along protected coastlines, including cays, away from the direct action of waves. Mangrove trees have developed special adaptations to survive the variable flooding and salinity conditions imposed by the coastal environment. They act as a buffer between the land and sea, trapping much of the soil and nutrients that runoff from land. Most of the production in mangroves is associated with the microbial community in the sediments, which is responsible for breaking down the organic matter from land and leaves that fall off the trees, and this is largely exported to reef communities where it is utilized as a nutrient source. Mangrove roots also act as nurseries and shelter for a number of coral reef species including juvenile fishes, mollusks and lobsters.
Seagrasses are a type of submerged aquatic vegetation that evolved from terrestrial plants and have become specialized to live in the marine environment. Seagrass beds are generally found in the shallow subtidal zone of the coastal environment, although occasionally they may be exposed to the air during very low tides. The highest diversity of seagrasses is found in the Pacific, with over 30 recognized species. Three dominant seagrass species found in the U.S. Caribbean region are: turtle grass (Thalassia testudinum), shoal grass (Halodule wrightii), and manatee grass (Syringodium filiforme), with four other species being also common. These species of grass can be found alone or mixed, forming small or large seagrass beds. The extent of a seagrass bed depends on factors such as substrate, temperature, water clarity and protection from wave energy. Seagrasses prefer protected areas with clear waters that allow good light penetration.
Seagrass beds provide food, shelter and nurseries for reef-associated fishes and invertebrates, and also play an important role in trapping sediments and excess nutrients from reef communities and land. Seagrass communities harbor a wide range of benthic, demersal and pelagic organisms. This includes permanent residents, which spawn and spend most of their lives in seagrass beds, as well as transient species. Transient species spend their lives in seagrass beds during their juvenile through adult life cycle, but spawn outside the seagrass beds, or they move between habitats on a daily basis, using seagrass beds for food or shelter. Other transients seek food and shelter in seagrass beds during their juvenile stage, and move to other habitats as sub-adults or adults.
Coral reefs thrive in oligotrophic waters that contain low levels of inorganic nutrients. Pollution enters reef ecosystems in many ways, ranging from such specific point-source discharges as sewage pipes and vessels to more diffuse sources such as runoff associated with agriculture, coastal development, road construction, and golf course irrigation. Though excess nutrients are generally a problem, a continuous supply of inorganic nutrients is essential for maintenance of metabolic processes, the proper functioning of reef ecosystems, and the persistence of coral and coralline algae-dominated communities. Many flourishing coral reefs occur in regions subjected to seasonal upwelling or other natural events such as volcanic eruptions that contribute temporary pulses of nutrients. Nutrient fluxes associated with upwelling events, currents, tides and other sources can play an important role in overall productivity of coral reefs. Furthermore, reefs will persist in areas affected by nutrient loading, provided that the herbivores are sufficiently abundant and diverse and are able to control proliferation of macroalgae.
In many locations terrestrial discharge of nutrients and other pollutants to coastal waters has increased considerably from pre-industrial levels, reflecting increases in human activities in the surrounding watershed. Pollution, including eutrophication and sedimentation associated with land based activities, has been associated with the degradation in water quality and coral reef health and diversity (LaPointe et al. 2000). Some of the sources of pollution include improper coastal development, dredging and beach renourishment, land clearing for agriculture, discharge of untreated sewage, industrial waste, agrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals, and chemical and oil spills. Potential impacts to coral reef ecosystems from these stressors include:
- Poisoning of sensitive species;
- Altering species composition and distribution due to smothering and reduced penetration of light;
- Disrupting critical ecological and endocrine functions such as reproduction, coral/zooxanthellae symbiosis, and photosynthesis;
- Impeding the settlement, growth and survival of stony corals and other benthic invertebrates;
- Enhancing the growth of competitive macroalgae and phytoplankton; and
- Increasing the prevalence and virulence of disease-causing pathogens and reducing the resistance and resilience of reef-building corals.
Coral reefs and associated mangrove forests and seagrass beds perform important biological, ecological and physical functions. Two of the main outputs of reefs are organic and inorganic carbon production. Reef organisms fix carbon for the production of their skeletons. The resulting skeletal structure provides a substrate for the settlement and attachment of other sessile organisms, as well as topographical relief that serves as habitat for motile fishes and invertebrates. Coral and algal skeletal materials are also broken down into sediments that form beaches and soft bottom habitats, are incorporated into the reef structure, and form an important part of the inorganic carbon pathway. Primary production of organic carbon by symbiotic zooxanthellae, turf algae, macroalgae and coralline algae supports the diverse organisms and complex food webs found on coral reefs. Through grazing and dislodgement, turf algae and frondose algae are maintained in an early stage of ecological succession where rates of photosynthesis and growth are highest. Secondary consumers (predators of herbivorous fishes and invertebrates) further enhance reef productivity by maintaining their prey in high growth phases and by supplying concentrated nutrients to their prey.
Some of the functional roles of coral reefs and associated habitats include:
- Complex, high relief habitat that serve as refuge for motile fish and invertebrates and microhabitats for cryptic fauna and flora;
- Breeding, feeding and nursery habitats for a great variety of marine species;
- Hard substrate for settlement and growth of sessile organisms;
- Global biogeochemical cycles including a storehouse of carbon dioxide;
- High productivity based on sunlight and coral/zooxanthellae symbiosis supports a complex food web;
- Repository of marine biodiversity and potential source of bioactive substances;
- Protection for coastal areas from strong wave action and full impacts of storms; and
- Natural recorders of past climate and environmental variation.
3.1.5 Cultural and Historical Values
U.S. island and coastal communities are intricately connected with the coral reef ecosystems that surround them. Many of the myths, legends and customs of native islanders encompass the surrounding marine environment as crucial components of life. Local coral reef resources provide food for cultural activities, subsistence and revenue through artisanal, recreational, and commercial fisheries. Historically, the native people of the Pacific islands have a strong cultural and economic dependence to the marine environment that surrounds them. For example, traditional Hawaiian fishery management activities centered around strictly enforced social and cultural controls on fishing. These fishery management activities were based on time and area closures to keep fishers from disturbing natural processes (reproduction) and habitat of important food resources. Recently, the State of Hawaii has supported the development of community-based subsistence fisheries areas in a few communities. These communities have prepared FMPs, which propose to integrate traditional observational methods and modern science techniques, use fishing to restore community values and stewardship, and revitalize a locally sanctioned code of fishing conduct.
3.1.6 Socioeconomic and Environmental Justice
Coral reefs provide economic and environmental services to millions of people through employment, recreation and tourism, shoreline protection, and sources of food, building materials, and pharmaceuticals. The estimated global economic value of coral reef ecosystems is about $375 billion dollars per year (Costanza et al. 1997). In the year 2000, an estimated 10.5 million people resided in US coastal areas adjacent to shallow water corals reefs and another 45 million tourists visited these reefs (Turgeon et al. 2002). In addition, the annual ex-vessel value of commercial fisheries associated with U.S. coral reefs is estimated at over 137.1 million (NMFS 2001). In southeast Florida, 18 million people participated in reef related activities during 2001, and these reefs are estimated to have an asset value of $7.6 billion (Johns et al. 2001). In Broward County, Florida recreational fishers, divers and snorkelers that use the natural reef are prepared to pay $83.6 million per year to maintain their natural reefs, $55.9 million per year to maintain the existing artificial reefs and $15.7 million per year to add new artificial reefs (Johns et al. 2001).
In many cases, coral reefs are found in less developed countries and areas, and significant impacts to coral reefs are experienced most by low income and minority populations, particularly populations who may rely in large part on the coral reefs as a subsistence way of life. In these situations, coral reefs can be fundamental to the fabric of local communities, providing a food source, materials, and traditional activities. It is estimated that despite their limited extent, coral reefs may be home to up to 25 percent of the fish catch of developing countries, or 10 percent of the total amount of fish caught globally for human consumption as food. The primary stressors on coral reefs, including increased population, shoreline development, increased sediments in the water, destruction from tourism and divers, ship groundings, inadequate sewage treatment, overfishing, and water quality issues demonstrate the resource use conflicts and the trade-offs between local economies based on subsistence and increasing development and tourism. Often, the terrestrial changes that occur due to development do not translate into improved living conditions for the lower income and minority populations, while at the same time threatening their subsistence lifestyle. The activities funded through the CRCGP will seek ways to alleviate negative impacts to coral reefs, and therefore will positively address these environmental justice issues.
3.1.7 Living Marine Resources and Essential Fish Habitat
A primary mission of NMFS is the stewardship of living marine resources through science-based conservation and management, and the promotion of healthy ecosystems. Living marine resources refer to the organisms that utilize, or otherwise rely upon, marine, estuarine, and riverine (tidal and non-tidal) resources during all or part of their life cycles. The passage of the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSFCMA) in 1976 and the SFA of 1996 (SFA; reauthorization of the MSFCMA) authorized NMFS to manage fisheries within the 200-mile wide EEZ along the coasts of the U.S. to address human impacts on the marine environment and to prioritize identification and management of EFH.
EFH is defined in the Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and Management Act (MSFCMA) as "those waters and substrate necessary to fish for spawning, breeding, feeding, or growth to maturity." Under the MSFCMA, EFH must be identified and conserved. Section 303(a)(7) of the Act requires the eight Regional FMCs to identify and describe EFH for each life stage of the managed species within their jurisdiction. Under Section 305(b)(2) of the MSFCMA, Federal agencies are required to consult with the Secretary of Commerce on any action that may adversely affect EFH. If a project falls beyond the scope of this PEA and is thought to cause adverse impacts to EFH, consultation will occur with Office of Habitat Conservation, Habitat Protection division and the appropriate NOAA Fisheries Service Regional Officer - either the Pacific Islands Regional Office or the Southeast Regional Office.
Western Pacific FMPs for Bottomfish and Seamount Fisheries Groundfish, Precious Coral Fisheries, Crustacean Fisheries, and Coral Reef Ecosystems
CRCG projects in the Western Pacific off Hawaii, the Northwest Hawaiian Islands, American Samoa, the Territory of Guam, CNMI, and U.S. Pacific Island possessions may be located within areas identified as EFH for species managed by the Western Pacific Fisheries Management Council under the Western Pacific FMP for Bottomfish and Seamount Fisheries Groundfish. This Plan identifies EFH for seven species and life stages that may coincide with CRCGP project areas, including giant trevally, blacktip grouper, sea bass, ambon emperor, blueline snapper, thicklip trevally, and lunartail grouper. Projects in the Western Pacific may also be located within other areas identified as EFH for three species of black coral under the Precious Corals FMP, and two species and life stages of spiny lobster and kona crab under the Crustacean Fisheries FMP. There are 146 coral reef species listed in the Western Pacific Coral Reef FMP.
Gulf of Mexico FMPs for Shrimp Fishery, Red Drum Fishery, Reef Fish Fishery, Stone Crab Fishery, Coral and Coral Reefs Fishery, and Spiny Lobster Fishery.
CRCG projects in the Gulf of Mexico may be located within areas identified as EFH for species managed by the Gulf of Mexico FMC under a Generic Amendment for Addressing EFH Requirements in several FMPs. The Shrimp FMP identifies three species and life stages, including brown shrimp, pink shrimp, and white shrimp that may coincide with CRCGP project sites. Projects may be located within other areas identified as EFH for red drum under the Red Drum FMP; 11 species and life stages of reef fish, including grouper, snapper, and triggerfish, under the Reef Fish FMP; stone crab under the Stone Crab FMP; coral and coral reefs under the Coral and Coral Reefs FMP; and spiny lobster under the Spiny Lobster FMP. The CRCGP projects may also occur in areas identified as EFH under the Secretarial FMP for Tunas, Swordfish and Sharks, including three species of shark: great hammerhead, nurse shark, and blacktip shark.
South Atlantic FMPs for Spiny Lobster Fishery, Shrimp Fishery, Red Drum Fishery, Snapper Grouper Fishery, Coral, Coral Reefs, and Live/Hard Bottom Habitat Fishery.
CRCGP projects off the coasts off east Florida may be located within areas identified as EFH for species managed by the South Atlantic FMC under the Comprehensive Amendment for addressing EFH (October, 1998). CRCGP project areas may coincide with EFH for spiny lobster and its life stages under the Spiny Lobster FMP; with brown, pink, white shrimp, rock shrimp, and royal red shrimp and their life stages under the Shrimp FMP; and within other areas identified as EFH for red drum under the Red Drum FMP; approximately 72 species and life stages in the snapper-grouper complex, including triggerfishes, grunts, snappers, sea basses, and groupers; and coral and coral reefs under the Coral, Coral Reefs, and Live/Hard Bottom Habitat FMP.
U.S. Caribbean FMPs for Shallow Water Reef Fish, Coral and Reef-Associated Plants and Invertebrates, Queen Conch, Spiny Lobster, and Secretarial FMP for Tunas, Sharks, and Swordfish
CRCGP projects in Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands may be located within areas identified as EFH for species managed by the Caribbean FMC under a Generic Amendment to four FMPs (October, 1998). The Shallow Water Reef Fish FMP identifies thirteen species of reef fish, including grouper, snapper, grunt, triggerfish, and red hind and their life stages that may exist in CRP project areas. Other species that may inhabit areas that coincide with CRCGP project locations include over 100 species of coral and life stages, including stony corals, sea fans and gorgonians, and over 60 species of plants, including seagrasses, and invertebrates under the Coral and Reef-Associated Plants and Invertebrates FMP; spiny lobster and its life stages under the Spiny Lobster FMP; and queen conch and its life stages under the Queen Conch FMP. Also, CRCGP projects may occur in areas identified as EFH under the Secretarial FMP for Tunas, Swordfish, and Sharks, including three species of shark: great hammerhead, nurse shark, and blacktip shark.
The Endangered Species Act (ESA) provides for the conservation of species that are in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of their range, as well as designation of critical habitat for these species. Considerations and the manner by which the CRCGP evaluates beneficial or adverse impacts to species that are listed as endangered or threatened are presented in Section 4.2.2 of the PEA.
The PEA lists and describes Pacific and Atlantic Ocean species of fish, invertebrates and sea turtles that were listed or are proposed for listing as endangered or threatened as of the release of this report. The endangered and threatened species that are associated with coral reefs are listed in Table 3.
In addition to threatened
and endangered species, NOAA Fisheries identifies and publishes
a list of Species of Concern. Table
4 lists those species of concern that are associated with
coral reef ecosystems. These include species potentially at risk
and species with identified data deficiencies and uncertainties
related to status and threats. This list increases public awareness
about a species and stimulates cooperative research efforts to
obtain the information necessary to evaluate species status and
threats. It also fosters voluntary efforts to conserve the species
before listing becomes warranted.
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